|
華夷之辨, the distinction between Hua () and Yi (), also known as Sino–barbarian dichotomy,〔Pines (2003).〕 is an ancient Chinese conception that differentiated a culturally defined "China" (called Hua, Huaxia 華夏, or Xia 夏) from cultural or ethnic outsiders (Yi "barbarians"). Although Yi is often translated as "barbarian", there are also other ways of translating this term into English. Some examples include "foreigners",〔Robert Morrison, ''The Dictionary of the Chinese Language'', 3 vols. (Macao: East India Company Press, 1815), 1:61 and 586–587.〕"ordinary others",〔Liu Xiaoyuan (2004), 10–11. Liu believes the Chinese in early China did not originally think of ''Yi'' as a derogatory term.〕 "wild tribes", "uncivilized tribes",〔Victor Mair, ''Wandering on the way : early Taoist tales and parables of Chuang Tzu'' (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998),315.〕 and so forth. The Hua–Yi distinction was basically cultural, but it could also take ethnic or racist overtones (especially in times of war). In its cultural form, the Hua–Yi distinction assumed Chinese cultural superiority, but also implied that outsiders could become ''Hua'' by adopting Chinese values and customs. When this "cultural universalism"〔Dikotter (1994), 3.〕 took a more racial guise, however, it could have harmful effects to those groups not considered 'Hua'.〔Terrill (2003), 41.〕 ==Historical context== Ancient China was composed of a group of states that arose in the Yellow River valley; one of the earliest centers of human civilization. According to historian Li Feng, who lived in Zhou Dynasty (ca. 1041–771 BCE) the contrast between the "Chinese" Zhou and the "Rong" or "Yi" was "more political than cultural or ethnic."〔Li, 286. Li explains that "Rong" meant something like "warlike foreigners" and "Yi" was close to "foreign conquerables".〕 Lothar von Falkenhausen argues that the perceived contrast between "Chinese" and "Barbarians" was accentuated during the Eastern Zhou period (770–256 BCE), when adherence to Zhou rituals became increasingly recognized as a "barometer of civilization."; a meter for the sophistication and cultural refinement of a group.〔von Falkenhausen (1999), 544.〕 It is widely agreed by historians, that the distinction between the "Hua" and the "Yi" emerged during the Zhou period.〔Shelach (1999), 222–23.〕 Professor of East Asian studies Prof. Gideon Shelach claims that Chinese texts tended to overstate the distinction between the Chinese and their northern neighbors whilst largely there were many similarities that existed between the two groups, therefore he places doubt in the very existence of the Hua–Yi distinction which so many, at the time, believed in.〔Shelach (1999), 222.〕 Dr Nicola di Cosmo also doubts the existence of a strong demarcation between the "Zhou Universe" and "a discrete, 'barbarian', non-Zhou universe"〔Di Cosmo (2002), 103.〕 and believes that this conception became popularized by Chinese historian, Sima Qian's, beliefs in and writings of the "chasm that had always existed between China – the Hua-Hsia () people – and the various alien groups inhabiting the north."〔Di Cosmo (2002), 2.〕 The conclusion of the Warring States period, brought the first unified Chinese state- established by the Qin Dynasty in 221 BCE- who set up the office of Emperor and forcibly standardized traditional Chinese script, leading to the first of the distinctions between the refined Chinese 'Hua' and the increasingly marginalized Yi. The Han Dynasty (221 BC-206 AD) would further contribute to the divide in its creation of a Han cultural identity among its populace that would last to the present day.〔Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais (2006)〕 The Han Chinese civilization has had a large influence on neighboring states such as Korea, Japan, Vietnam and Thailand and other Asian countries. Although Han Chinese superiority had only been sporadically reinforced by displays of Chinese military might and despite that they were independent nations and anything but, the Sinocentric system treated these countries as vassals of the ''Emperor'' or ''the Son of Heaven'' (Chinese:天子), who was in ownership of the Mandate of Heaven (Chinese:天命)- the divine right to rule. Areas outside the Sinocentric influence and the divine rule of the Emperor were considered, under this concept, to consist of uncivilized lands inhabited by barbarians, or Huawaizhidi.〔Arrighi (1996)〕 Throughout history, the frontiers of China had been periodically attacked by nomadic tribes from the north and west. These nomadic people were considered ''barbarians'' and were often compared to the Chinese who believed themselves to be the more refined people of the Central Plain (中原), who had begun to build cities and live an urban life based on agriculture. It was in consideration of how best to deal with this threat that the philosopher, Confucius (551 – 479 BCE) was prompted to formulate principles for relationships with the barbarians, briefly recorded in two of his Analects.〔Chin (2007)〕 It was not until the expansion of European trade and colonialism into the East, in the 18th and 19th centuries, that Chinese civilization become fully exposed to the external cultural and technological developments that had outstripped that of China's whilst they brooded in their beliefs of superiority within their borders. As such, the nation was forced to undergo a modification of its traditional views of its relationships with those whom they had previously considered "barbarians".〔Ankerl (2000)〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Hua–Yi distinction」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|